American English

advantage

▪ I. ad·van·tage [advantage advantages advantaged advantaging] noun, verb   [ədˈvɑːntɪdʒ]    [ədˈvæntɪdʒ]

noun countable, uncountable
1. a thing that helps you to be better or more successful than other people
• a big/great/definite advantage
• an unfair advantage (= sth that benefits you, but not your opponents)
• She had the advantage of a good education.
• You will be at an advantage (= have an advantage) in the interview if you have thought about the questions in advance.
• ~ over sb Being tall gave him an advantage over the other players.
• companies seeking competitive advantage over their trading rivals

Opp:  disadvantage

2. a quality of sth that makes it better or more useful
• A small car has the added advantage of being cheaper to run.
• One advantage of/One of the advantages of living in the country is the fresh air.
• Each of these systems has its advantages and disadvantages.

Opp:  disadvantage

3. (in tennis) the first point scored after a score of 40–40
• Advantage Federer.  
Word Origin:
Middle English: from Old French avantage, from avant ‘in front’, from late Latin abante ‘in front’, from ab ‘from’ + ante ‘before’. The initial a- was mistakenly assimilated to ad- in the 16th cent.  
Thesaurus:
advantage noun
1. sing.
• Being tall gave him an advantage over the other players.
edge • • lead • • the upper hand • • head start •
Opp: disadvantage
an advantage/an edge/a lead/the upper hand/a head start over sb/sth
an advantage/an edge/a lead/the upper hand/a head start in sth
have/give sb an advantage/an edge/a lead/the upper hand/a head start
2. C, U
• the advantages of having a degree
benefit • • strength • • good • • asset • • good point • |informal plus •
Opp: disadvantage
some/any/no advantage/benefit in sth
be to sb's advantage/benefit
considerable/great/real/relative advantages/benefits/strengths/good/assets
Advantage or benefit? A benefit is sth that you get or that comes from sth that you do. An advantage is sth that a person, thing, plan or action has as a quality.  
Example Bank:
• Breastfeeding offers a clear advantage to your baby.
• East coast resorts have the advantage over west coast ones.
• He would gain considerable advantage from staying in that job.
• I took complete advantage of the situation.
• It is to your advantage to delay things for as long as possible.
• The bright lighting showed the jewels to their best advantage.
• The commanders were anxious to press home their advantage with a further offensive in the north.
• The company has an unfair advantage over its competitors.
• The company was able to gain a competitive advantage over its rivals by reducing costs.
• The new design gives us a clear advantage over our competitors.
• The plan would be to our mutual advantage.
• There may be some advantage in laying down a clearer procedure.
• These computers have the added advantage of being cheap.
• They argue that the possible risks attached to such vaccines vastly outweigh any advantages.
• the advantage to both countries of closer economic ties
• the natural advantages of a fertile soil
• the natural advantages of countries with low labour costs
• Being tall gave him a definite advantage over the other players.
• Having a degree is a huge advantage when it comes to getting a job.
• Is there any advantage in getting there early?
• The bill will give US tuna processors a competitive advantage in the US tuna market.
• Their better training gave the French troops a decisive advantage.
• They took an early lead and held onto their advantage right to the end.
• With good cooperation we should be able to exploit this opportunity to our mutual advantage.
• You will be at an advantage if you have thought about the interview questions in advance.

Idioms: take advantage of somebody ▪ to your advantage ▪ turn something to your advantage 

inner

inner [inner inners]   [ˈɪnə(r)]    [ˈɪnər]  adjective only before noun
1. inside; towards or close to the centre of a place
• an inner courtyard
• inner London
• the inner ear

Opp:  outer

2. (of feelings, etc.) private and secret; not expressed or shown to other people
• She doesn't reveal much of her inner self.
• An inner voice told him that what he was doing was wrong.  
Word Origin:
Old English innerra, innra, comparative of in.  
Example Bank:
• He has to fight an inner turmoil even to step onto a plane.

• She doesn't reveal much of her inner self.

capitalism

cap·it·al·ism [capitalism]   [ˈkæpɪtəlɪzəm]    [ˈkæpɪtəlɪzəm]  noun uncountable
an economic system in which a country's businesses and industry are controlled and run for profit by private owners rather than by the government
• the growth of industrial capitalism in the West
compare  socialism  
Example Bank:
• He predicted the fall of world capitalism.
• He was one of the leading advocates of laissez-faire capitalism.
• She deplored unbridled capitalism as much as communism.
• a protest against global capitalism

• a study of the development of agriculture under capitalism

necessity

ne·ces·sity [necessity necessities]   [nəˈsesəti]    [nəˈsesəti]  noun
1. uncountable the fact that sth must happen or be done; the need for sth
• ~ (for sth) We recognize the necessity for a written agreement.
• ~ (of sth/of doing sth) We were discussing the necessity of employing more staff.
• ~ (for sb) to do sth There had never been any necessity for her to go out to work.
• There is absolutely no necessity for you to be involved.

• This is, of necessity, a brief and incomplete account.

2. countable a thing that you must have and cannot manage without
• Many people cannot even afford basic necessities such as food and clothing.

• Air-conditioning is an absolute necessity in this climate.

3. countable, usually singular a situation that must happen and that cannot be avoided
• Living in London, he felt, was an unfortunate necessity.
more at make a virtue of necessity at  virtue
Idiom: necessity is the mother of invention  
Word Origin:
late Middle English: from Old French necessite, from Latin necessitas, from necesse ‘be needful’.  
Example Bank:
• Culling of the animals was born out of the necessity for successful conservation.
• Driven by financial necessity, she decided to give up her writing career.
• Food is a necessity of life.
• He argued that nuclear weapons were a political necessity.
• He is changing job out of necessity, not because he particularly wants to.
• I've never felt the necessity to rely on such a strict rule.
• Most disputes can be resolved without the necessity of going to court.
• Most of the women are forced, through economic necessity, to work in part-time low-paid jobs.
• Mrs R has been spared the necessity of having to give evidence.
• Necessity forced an urgent solution.
• Observers stressed the necessity for the ceasefire to be observed.
• Policies which address these issues are an urgent necessity.
• She saw the necessity to make an immediate impression on him.
• Sleep is an absolute necessity for life.
• The company sees no necessity for a more cautious approach to investment.
• The people in the rural areas use mud bricks only as an immediate, practical necessity.
• The visit will, of necessity, be brief.
• There's no necessity for you to come.
• These animals don't like water but will swim if the necessity arises.
• They have accepted the necessity of greater state intervention.
• They have nothing but the barest necessities.
• This rule is carried no farther than necessity requires.
• Where necessity demands, we can seat more guests in the gallery.
• You can dial direct without the necessity of going through the operator.
• the necessity to earn a living

• Living in London he felt, was an unfortunate necessity.

circumstance

cir·cum·stance AW [circumstance circumstances]   [ˈsɜːkəmstəns]    [ˈsɜːkəmstɑːns]    [ˈsɜːkəmstæns]    [ˈsɜːrkəmstæns]  noun
1. countable, usually plural the conditions and facts that are connected with and affect a situation, an event or an action
• The company reserves the right to cancel this agreement in certain circumstances.
• changing social and political circumstances
• I know I can trust her in any circumstance.
• Police said there were no suspicious circumstances surrounding the boy's death.
• The ship sank in mysterious circumstances.

• She never discovered the true circumstances of her birth.

2. circumstances plural the conditions of a person's life, especially the money they have
• Grants are awarded according to your financial circumstances.

• family/domestic/personal circumstances

3. uncountable (formal) situations and events that affect and influence your life and that are not in your control
• a victim of circumstance (= a person who has suffered because of a situation that they cannot control)
• He had to leave the country through force of circumstance (= events made it necessary).
• We were simply thrown together by circumstance on the long journey.
more at pomp and circumstance at  pomp, reduced circumstances at  reduce
Idioms: in no circumstances ▪ in the circumstances  
Word Origin:
Middle English: from Old French circonstance or Latin circumstantia, from circumstare ‘encircle, encompass’, from circum ‘around’ + stare ‘stand’.  
Thesaurus:
circumstance noun C, usually pl.
• She did the job very well in the circumstances.
conditions • • situation • • position • • the case • • state of affairs • |informal, especially spoken things •
in the/a circumstances/particular situation/position/state of affairs
the general/current/present/real circumstances/conditions/situation/position/state of affairs
sb's economic/financial/social circumstances/conditions/situation/position
describe/explain the circumstances/situation/position/state of affairs/things
Circumstances or conditions? Circumstances refers to sb's financial situation; conditions refers to things such as food, shelter, or the working environment. The circumstances that affect an event are the facts surrounding it; the conditions are usually physical things, such as the weather.  
Synonyms:
situation
circumstances • position • conditions • things • the case • state of affairs
These are all words for the conditions and facts that are connected with and affect the way things are.
situation • all the things that are happening at a particular time and in a particular place: ▪ the present economic situation
circumstances • the facts that are connected with and affect a situation, an event or an action; the conditions of a person's life, especially the money they have: ▪ The ship sank in mysterious circumstances.
position • the situation that sb is in, especially when it affects what they can and cannot do: ▪ She felt she was in a position of power.
conditions • the circumstances in which people live, work or do things; the physical situation that affects how sth happens: ▪ We were forced to work outside in freezing conditions.
circumstances or conditions?
Circumstances refers to sb's financial situation; conditions are things such as the quality and amount of food or shelter they have. The circumstances that affect an event are the facts surrounding it; the conditions that affect it are usually physical ones, such as the weather.
things • (rather informal) the general situation, as it affects sb: ▪ Hi, Jane! ▪ How are things? ◊ ▪ Think things over before you decide.
the case • the true situation: ▪ If that is the case ▪ (= if the situation described is true) ▪, we need more staff.
state of affairs • a situation: ▪ How did this unhappy state of affairs come about?
situation or state of affairs?
State of affairs is mostly used with this. It is also used with adjectives describing how good or bad a situation is, such as happy, sorry, shocking, sad and unhappy, as well as those relating to time, such as present and current. Situation is much more frequent and is used in a wider variety of contexts.
in (a) particular situation/circumstances/position/state of affairs
the/sb's economic/financial/social situation/circumstances/position/conditions
(a/an) happy/unhappy situation/circumstances/position/state of affairs
to look at/review the situation/circumstances/conditions/things 
Example Bank:
• Due to unforeseen circumstances, we have had to reschedule the concert.
• He died in tragic circumstances.
• He was a writer living in straitened circumstances.
• He was simply a victim of circumstance.
• His sentence was reduced because of the extenuating circumstances.
• I felt that circumstances were conspiring against me.
• In normal circumstances I would let you use my car, but today I need it.
• In the circumstances, you'd better call the police.
• Only if the circumstances are exceptional will we accept late applications.
• She died in rather suspicious circumstances.
• The amount paid will vary according to circumstances.
• The bank will investigate the circumstances surrounding the robbery.
• The delays were due to circumstances beyond our control.
• The plan might work better with more favourable/favorable circumstances.
• The survivors ate plants and insects by force of circumstance.
• Under no circumstances should you leave the door unlocked.
• We lost our position in the market due to a combination of circumstances.
• an unfortunate set of circumstances that made her life difficult
• life in the changing economic circumstances of China
• people facing adverse circumstances
• the tragic circumstances of his early life
• Don't open the door, in any circumstances.
• Grants are awarded according to your financial circumstances.
• He had to leave the country through force of circumstance.
• Police said there were no suspicious circumstances surrounding the boy's death.

• Under the circumstances, it seemed better not to tell him about the accident.

outward

out·ward   [ˈaʊtwəd]    [ˈaʊtwərd]  adjective only before noun
1. connected with the way people or things seem to be rather than with what is actually true
• Mark showed no outward signs of distress.
• She simply observes the outward forms of religion.
• To all outward appearances (= as far as it was possible to judge from the outside) they were perfectly happy.
• There were no outward signs that the house was inhabited.

Opp:  inward

2. going away from a particular place, especially one that you are going to return to

• the outward voyage/journey

3. away from the centre or a particular point
• outward movement
• outward investment (= in other countries)
• Managers need to become more outward-looking (= more open to new ideas).
Opp:  inward  
Word Origin:
[outward] Old English ūtweard (see out-, -ward).  
Example Bank:

• To all outward appearances they were perfectly happy.

verb
1. transitive ~ sb to have a bad effect on sb and make them behave in an immoral or dishonest way
• He was corrupted by power and ambition.

• the corrupting effects of great wealth

2. transitive, often passive ~ sth to change the original form of sth, so that it is damaged or spoiled in some way

• a corrupted form of Buddhism

3. transitive, intransitive ~ (sth) (computing) to cause mistakes to appear in a computer file, etc. with the result that the information in it is no longer correct
• The program has somehow corrupted the system files.
• corrupted data
• The disk will corrupt if it is overloaded.
Verb forms:
 
Word Origin:

Middle English: from Latin corruptus, past participle of corrumpere ‘mar, bribe, destroy’, from cor- ‘altogether’ + rumpere ‘to break’.

exploit

ex·ploit AW [exploit exploits exploited exploiting] verb, noun

verb   [ɪkˈsplɔɪt]  ;   [ɪkˈsplɔɪt]
1. ~ sth (disapproving) to treat a person or situation as an opportunity to gain an advantage for yourself
• He exploited his father's name to get himself a job.
• She realized that her youth and inexperience were being exploited.

• The opposition parties will always exploit government problems to their own advantage.

2. ~ sb (disapproving) to treat sb unfairly by making them work and not giving them much in return

• What is being done to stop employers from exploiting young people?

3. ~ sth to use sth well in order to gain as much from it as possible
• She fully exploits the humour of her role in the play.

• Teachers should be exploiting computers in education.

4. to develop or use sth for business or industry
• ~ sth No minerals have yet been exploited in Antarctica.
• ~ sth for sth countries exploiting the rainforests for hardwood
Verb forms:
 
Word Origin:
Middle English: from Old French esploit (noun), based on Latin explicare ‘unfold’, from ex- ‘out’ + plicare ‘to fold’. The early notion of ‘success, progress’ gave rise to the sense ‘attempt to capture’, ‘military expedition’, hence the current sense of the noun. Verb senses (mid 19th cent.) are from modern French exploiter.  
Thesaurus:
exploit verb T (usually disapproving)
• Some employers are exploiting immigrants.
disapproving abuse • • use • |formal misuse •
exploit/abuse your position
abuse/misuse drugs/alcohol/solvents
exploit/use sb/sth for your own ends  
Example Bank:
• Birds exploit these wind patterns to the fullest.
• Companies are moving in to exploit the natural resources of the area.
• He pursued his own interests, cynically exploiting his privileged position as trustee.
• He was determined to exploit the potential of this new discovery.
• She was eager to exploit her discovery commercially.
• The architect has cleverly exploited new materials and building techniques.
• The company has been successful in exploiting new technology to the full.
• The team were quick to exploit their competitive advantage.
• The workers are ruthlessly exploited by their employers.
• They were quick to exploit the economic possibilities of the situation.
• He exploited his father's name to get himself a job.
• They were hoping to exploit any weaknesses the other team might have.
• This legal loophole has been ruthlessly exploited by many unscrupulous investors.
• What is being done to stop employers from exploiting immigrants?

Derived Word: exploiter 

verb (-ll-) 

HAVE POWER
1. ~ sb/sth to have power over a person, company, country, etc. so that you are able to decide what they must do or how it is run
• By the age of 21 he controlled the company.
• The whole territory is now controlled by the army.
• Can't you control your children?

• a multi-national company based in Britain but controlled from South Africa  

LIMIT/MANAGE

2. to limit sth or make it happen in a particular way
• ~ sth government attempts to control immigration
• Many biological processes are controlled by hormones.
• Try to control your breathing.

• ~ what/how, etc… Parents should control what their kids watch on television.

3. ~ sth to stop sth from spreading or getting worse
• Firefighters are still trying to control the blaze.

• She was given drugs to control the pain.  

MACHINE

4. ~ sth to make sth, such as a machine or system, work in the way that you want it to
• This knob controls the volume.

• The traffic lights are controlled by a central computer.  

STAY CALM

5. to manage to make yourself remain calm, even though you are upset or angry
• ~ yourself I was so furious I couldn't control myself and I hit him.
• ~ sth He was finding it difficult to control his feelings.
Verb forms:

 
Word Origin:
late Middle English (as a verb in the sense ‘check or verify accounts’, especially by referring to a duplicate register): from Anglo-Norman French contreroller ‘keep a copy of a roll of accounts’, from medieval Latin contrarotulare, from contrarotulus ‘copy of a roll’, from contra- ‘against’ + rotulus ‘a roll’. The noun is perhaps via French contrôle.  
Thesaurus:
control verb
1. T
• By the age of 25 he controlled the company.
run • • manage • • be in charge • • direct • • be responsible for sb/sth • • administer • • command •
control/run/manage a/an company/business/organization
control/run/manage/direct/be responsible for/administer a project
control/run/manage/be in charge of/direct/be responsible for operations
2. T
• Can't you control your dog?
manage • • handle •
control/manage a child
be easy/difficult to control/manage/handle
control/manage/handle sb/sth properly
3. T
• new measures to control immigration
limit • • restrict • • curb • • check • • keep/hold sth in check • • rein sth in • |especially BrE cap • |written contain • • suppress •
control/limit/restrict/curb/check/rein in/cap spending
keep/hold spending in check
control/limit/curb/check/contain the spread of sth
control/limit/restrict the size/number/extent/amount of sth
4. T
• She was given drugs to control the pain.
overcome • • bring/get/keep sth under control • • get over sth • |informal beat • |written conquer •
control/overcome/get over/beat/conquer a problem
control/overcome/get over/conquer a fear
control a fire /bring a fire under control
5. T
• The lights are controlled by a computer.
operate • • run • |especially spoken work • |formal manipulate •
control/operate/run/work a machine
control/operate/run a/an engine/motor
Control, operate or run? A person operates or runs a machine; machines are often controlled by the controls, such as a computer, knob or lever.
6. T
• She struggled to control her temper.
restrain • • hold sth back • • suppress • • repress • • stifle • • curb • |written contain • • check •
control/restrain/contain/check yourself
control/restrain/hold back/suppress/repress/contain/check your anger
control/restrain/suppress/repress/stifle/curb/check an impulse
control/curb/contain your temper  
Example Bank:
• Conditions in the greenhouse are carefully controlled.
• Expenditure within the company is tightly controlled.
• The shutters can be electronically controlled.
• You can easily control the speed of the fan.
• Can't you control your children?
• Each school is controlled by a Board of Governors.
• Government forces have proved incapable of controlling the rebels.
• He had an emergency operation in which surgeons attempted to control the bleeding.
• He was finding it hard to control his feelings.
• His diabetes can be controlled by diet.
• I was so furious I couldn't control myself and I hit him.
• It is a multi-national company based in Britain but controlled from South Africa.
• Mounted police had been called to control the crowds.
• She was struggling to control her temper.
• Symptoms can be controlled in most patients.
• The National Bank is directly controlled by the government.
• The clerk could scarcely control his excitement.
• The clubs were found guilty of failing to control their fans.
• The government has announced new measures to control immigration
• This government has failed to control inflation.

• Time out is an effective way of controlling aggressive behaviour.